Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine

ISSN: 2300-9705     eISSN: 2353-2807    OAI    DOI: 10.18276/cej.2021.3-08
CC BY-SA   Open Access   DOAJ  DOAJ

Lista wydań / Vol. 35, No. 3/2021
The Impact of Implicit and Explicit Training Methods on the Acquisition of Perceptual Expertise in Young Athletes

Autorzy: Afroditi Lola ORCID
School of Physical Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Evandros Votsis ORCID
School of Physical Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

George Tzetzis ORCID
School of Physical Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Dimitris Chatzopoulos ORCID
School of Physical Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Słowa kluczowe: attention demands decision-making complexity speed accuracy dual sports
Data publikacji całości:2021
Liczba stron:12 (87-98)
Cited-by (Crossref) ?:

Abstrakt

This study examined the effectiveness of implicit and explicit learning methods on the acquisition and retention of the decision-making skill in low and high complexity situations. 60 novice students were divided into explicit, implicit, and control group. Experimental groups followed 12 training courses. A pre-test, a post-test, and a retention test were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional methods. All participants were evaluated in decision-making speed and accuracy in laboratory tests under simulated conditions. A three-way factorial ANOVA was conducted (3 Group X 2 Complexity X 3 Measurement periods) with repeated measurements on the last factor for the accuracy and reaction time. The analysis showed a significant improvement in decision-making accuracy, in low complexity for both experimental groups. In high complexity situations, the explicit method improved over time and was better than the implicit for decision accuracy. No differences were found among groups or measurements for the decision speed in either low or high complexity situations. It seems that in complex sport conditions, the use of explicit learning helps novices to develop decision-making accuracy more than the implicit learning method, since guided discovery may guide the participants to process contextual information from the sports environment more effectively.
Pobierz plik

Plik artykułu

Bibliografia

1.Abernethy, B., Russell, D.G. (1987). The relationship between expertise and visual search strategy in a racquet sport. Human Movement Science, 6 (4), 283–319.
2.Abernethy, B., Gill, D.P., Parks, S.L., Packer, S.T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information. Perception, 30 (2), 233–252.
3.Abernethy, B., Wood, J.M., Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70 (3), 313–318.
4.Adolphe, R.M., Vickers, J.N., Laplante, G. (1997). The effects of training visual attention on gaze behaviour and accuracy: A pilot study. International Journal of Sports Vision, 4b (1), 28–33.
5.Anderson, J.R. (1983). Cognitive science series. The architecture of cognition.
6.Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4 (10), 829–839.
7.Baddeley, A. (2007). Working Memory, Thought, and Action (Vol. 45). OuP Oxford.
8.Bard, C., Fleury, M., Goulet, C. (1994). Relationship between perceptual strategies and response adequacy in sport situations. International Journal of Sport Psychology.
9.Beek, P.J. (2000, October). Toward a theory of implicit learning in the perceptual-motor domain. In Scientific Sport Psychology Workshop, Nov, 1997, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Edizioni Luigi Pozzi.
10.Bennett, S.J. (2000). Implicit learning: Should it be used in practice? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 542–546. Carruthers, P. (2013). Mindreading in infancy. Mind & Language, 28 (2), 141–172.
11.Chauvel, G., Maquestiaux, F., Hartley, A.A., Joubert, S., Didierjean, A., Masters, R.S. (2012). Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative, automatic memory processes: Evidence from golf putting. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65 (1), 25–38.
12.Christina, R.W., Barresi, J.V., Shaffner, P. (1990). The development of response selection accuracy in a football linebacker using video training. The Sport Psychologist, 4 (1), 11–17.
13.Cowan, N. (2016). Working Memory Capacity: Classic edition. Psychology press.
14.DeShon, R.P., Alexander, R.A. (1996). Goal setting effects on implicit and explicit learning of complex tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65 (1), 18–36.
15.Engle, R.W. (2010). Role of working-memory capacity in cognitive control. Current Anthropology, 51 (S1), S17–S26.
16.Farrow, D., Abernethy, B. (2002). Can anticipatory skills be learned through implicit video based perceptual training? Journal of Sports Sciences, 20 (b6), 471–485.
17.Fitts, P.M., Posner, M.I. (1967). Human Performance.
18.Franks, I.M., Hanvey, T. (1997). Cues for goalkeepers. High-tech methods used to measure penalty shot response. Soccer Journal, 42, 30–33.
19.Gentile, A.M. (1998). Movement science: Implicit and explicit processes during acquisition of functional skills. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 5 (1), 7–16.
20.Gomez, R.L. (1997). Transfer and complexity in artificial grammar learning. Cognitive Psychology, 33 (2), 154–207.
21.Gröpel, P., Mesagno, C. (2017). Choking interventions in sports: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12 (1),1–26.
22.Helsen, W.F., Starkes, J.L. (1999). A new training approach to complex decision making for police officers in potentially dangerous interventions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27 (5), 395–410.
23.Jackson, R.C., Farrow, D. (2005). Implicit perceptual training: How, when, and why? Human Movement Science, 24 (3), 308–325.
24.Kleynen, M., Braun, S.M., Bleijlevens, M.H., Lexis, M.A., Rasquin, S.M., Halfens, J., Wilson, M.R., Beurskens, A.J., Masters, R.S. (2014). Using a Delphi technique to seek consensus regarding definitions, descriptions and classification of terms related to implicit and explicit forms of motor learning. PLoS One, 9 (6), e100227.
25.Liao, C.M., Masters, R.S. (2001). Analogy learning: A means to implicit motor learning. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19 (5), 307–319.
26.Lola, A.C., Tzetzis, G.C. (2021). The effect of explicit, implicit and analogy instruction on decision making skill for novices, under stress. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–21.
27.Lola, A.C, Tzetzis, G. (2020). Analogy versus explicit and implicit learning of a volleyball skill for novices: The effect on motor performance and self-efficacy. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 20, 2478–2486.
28.MacMahon, K., Masters, R.S. (2002). The effects of secondary tasks on implicit motor skill performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology.
29.Magill, R.A. (1998). Knowledge is more than we can talk about: Implicit learning in motor skill acquisition. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69 (2), 104–110.
30.Masters, R.S. (2012). Advances in implicit motor learning. In Skill acquisition in sport, 85–102, Routledge.
31.Masters, R.S. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British Journal of Psychology, 83 (3), 343–358.
32.Masters, R.S.W., Poolton, J.M., Maxwell, J.P., Raab, M. (2008). Implicit motor learning and complex decision making in time-constrained environments. Journal of Motor Behavior, 40 (1), 71–79.
33.Masters, R.S., Maxwell, J.P. (2004). 10 Implicit motor learning, reinvestment and movement disruption. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, theory and practice, 207.
34.Masters, R., Law, J., Maxwell, J. (2002). Implicit and explicit learning in interceptive actions. Interceptive Actions in Sport: Information and movement, 126–143.
35.Maxwell, J.P., Masters, R.S.W., Eves, F.F. (2003). The role of working memory in motor learning and performance. Consciousness and Cognition, 12 (3), 376–402.
36.Maxwell, J.P., Masters, R.S., Eves, F.F. (2000). From novice to no know-how: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning. Journal of sports sciences, 18 (2), 111–120.
37.Orasanu, J., Connolly, T. (1993). The reinvention of decision making. Decision Making in Action: Models and methods, 1, 3–20.
38.Paup, C.D., Fernhall, B. (2000). Skills, Drills and Strategies for Badminton. Arizona: Holcomb Hathaway Publishers.
39.Poolton, J.M., Masters, R.S., Maxwell, J.P. (2006). The influence of analogy learning on decision-making in table tennis: Evidence from behavioural data. Psychology of sport and exercise, 7 (6), 677–688.
40.Poolton, J.M., Maxwell, J.P., Masters, R.S.W., Raab, M. (2006). Benefits of an external focus of attention: Common coding or conscious processing? Journal of Sports Sciences, 24 (1), 89–99.
41.Raab, M. (2002). T-ECHO: Model of decision making to explain behaviour in experiments and simulations under time pressure. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3 (2), 151–171.
42.Raab, M. (2003a). Decision making in sports: Influence of complexity on implicit and explicit learning. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1 (4), 406–433.
43.Raab, M. (2003b). Implicit and Explicit Learning of Decision Making in Sports is Effected by Complexity of Situation. International Journal of Sport Psychology.
44.Raab, M. (2005). An explicit investigation of implicit decision-making processes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3 (1), 91–97.
45.Raab, M., Johnson, J.G. (2008). Implicit learning as a means to intuitive decision making in sports.
46.Raab, M., Masters, R.S., Maxwell, J.P. (2005). Improving the ‘how’ and ‘what’ decisions of elite table tennis players. Human Movement Science, 24 (3), 326–344.
47.Savelsbergh, G.J., Van der Kamp, J., Williams, A.M., Ward, P. (2005). Anticipation and visual search behaviour in expert soccer goalkeepers. Ergonomics, 48 (11–14), 1686–1697.
48.Schneider, W., Schiffrin, R.M. (1977). Automatic vs controlled processing. Psychol Rev, 84, 1–64.
49.Siemann, M., Gebhardt, R.P. (1996). Einfluss der Instruktion und Aufgabenkomplexität auf transitive Entscheidungen (Effects of instructions und task complexity in transitive decisions). Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 2, 435–460.
50.Smeeton, N.J., Williams, A.M., Hodges, N.J., Ward, P. (2005). The relative effectiveness of various instructional approaches in developing anticipation skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11 (2), 98.
51.Starkes, J.L., Lindley, S. (1994). Can we hasten expertise by video simulations? Quest, 46 (2), 211–222.
52.Starkes, J.L., Deakin, J.M., Lindley, S., Crisp, F. (1987). Motor versus verbal recall of ballet sequences by young expert dancers. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9 (3), 222–230.
53.Tenenbaum, G., Sar-El, T., Bar-Eli, M. (2000). Anticipation of ball location in low and high-skill performers: a developmental perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 1 (2), 117–128.
54.Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211 (4481), 453–458.
55.Tzetzis, G., Lola, A.C. (2015). The effect of analogy, implicit, and explicit learning on anticipation in volleyball serving. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 46 (2), 152–166.
56.Tzetzis, G., Lola, C.A. (2010). The role of implicit, explicit instruction and their combination in learning anticipation skill, under normal and stress conditions. International Journal of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, 1, 54–59.
57.Vickers, J.N., Reeves, M.A., Chambers, K.L., Martell, S. (2004). 6 Decision training. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice, 103.
58.Votsis, E., Tzetzis, G., Hatzitaki, V., Grouios, V.G. (2009). The effect of implicit and explicit methods in acquisition of anticipation skill in low and high complexity situations. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 40 (3), 374–391.
59.Ward, P., Williams, A.M., Bennett, S.J. (2002). Visual search and biological motion perception in tennis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73 (1), 107–112.
60.Williams, A M., Ward, P., Chapman, C. (2003). Training perceptual skill in field hockey: Is there transfer from the laboratory to the field?. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 74 (1), 98–103.
61.Williams, A.M., Ward, P., Smeeton, N.J. (2004). Perceptual and cognitive expertise in sport. Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice, 15, 328.